Seminars in Pediatric Neurology
Volume 12, Issue 4 , Pages 200-216 , December 2005

Evaluation and Assessment Issues in the Diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

  • Ruth D. Nass, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Ruth D. Nass, MD, Department of Neurology, New York University School of Medicine, NYU Medical Center, RR311, 550 First Ave, New York, NY 10016.

References 

  1. Kaufman J , Birmaher B , Brent D , et al.   Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL) (initial reliability and validity data) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:980–988
  2. Shaffer D , Fisher P , Lucas CP , et al.   NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV) (description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2000;39:28–38
  3. Reich W , Welner Z , Herjanic B . DICA-IV. Windows Version . North Tonowanda, NY: MultiHealth Systems; 1997;
  4. Reich W . Diagnostic interview for children and adolescents (DICA) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2000;39:59–66
  5. Angold A , Costello EJ , Erkanli A . Comorbidity . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1999;40:57–87
  6. Reich W , Cottler LB , McCallum K , et al.   Computerized interviews as a method of assessing psychopathology in children . Compr Psychiatry . 1995;36:40–45
  7. Angold A , Fisher PW . Interviewer-based interviews . In:  Shaffer D ,  Lucas CP ,  Richters JE editor. Diagnostic Assessment in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology . New York, NY: Guilford; 1999;p. 34–64
  8. Jensen M , Weisz J . Assessing match and mismatch between practitioner-generated standard interview-generated diagnoses for clinic-referred children and adolescents . J Consult Clin Psychol . 2002;70:158–168
  9. Costello EJ , Angold A , Burns BJ , et al.   The Great Smoky Mountains Study of Youth (goals, designs, methods, and the prevalence of DSM-III-R disorders) . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1996;53:1129–1136
  10. Eaves LJ , Silberg JL , Maes HH , et al.   Genetics and developmental psychopathology, 2 (the main effects of genes and environment on behavioral problems in the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development) . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1997;38:965–980
  11. Simonoff E , Pickles A , Meyer JM , et al.   The Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development (influences of age, sex and impairment on rates of disorder) . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1997;54:801–808
  12. De la Osa N , Ezpeleta L , Oomenech JM , et al.   Convergent and discriminate validity of the structured diagnostic interview for children and adolescents (DICA-R) . Psychol Spain . 1997;1:37–44
  13. Valla JP , Bergeron L , Smolla N . The Dominic-R (a pictorial interview for 6- to 11-year-old children) . Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry . 2000;39:85–93
  14. Welner Z , Reich W , Herjanic B , et al.   Reliability, validity and parent-child agreement studies of the diagnostic interview for children and adolescents (DICA) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1987;5:649–653
  15. Thienemann M . Introducing a structured interview into a clinical setting . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2004;43:1057–1060
  16. Aronen E , Noam G , Weinstein S . Structured diagnostic interviews and clinicians’ discharge diagnoses in hospitalized adolescents . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1993;32:674–681
  17. Ezpeleta L , de la Osa N , Domenech J , et al.   Diagnostic agreement between clinicians and the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents—DICA-R—in an outpatient sample . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1997;38:431–440
  18. Lewczyk C , Garland A , Hurlburt M , et al.   Comparing DISC-IV and clinician diagnoses among youths receiving public mental health services . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2003;42:349–356
  19. Miller P . Inpatient diagnostic assessments: 2. Interrater reliability and outcomes of structured vs. unstructured interviews . Psychiatry Res . 2001;105:265–271
  20. Miller P , Dasher R , Collins R , et al.   Inpatient diagnostic assessments: 1. Accuracy of structured v. unstructured interviews . Psychiatry Res . 2001;105:255–264
  21. Mulhern S , Dworkin PH , Bernstein B . Do parental concerns predict a diagnosis of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 1994;15:348–352
  22. DiBartolo P , Albano A , Barlow D , et al.   Cross-informant agreement in the assessment of social phobia in youth . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1998;26:213–220
  23. Jensen P , Rubio-Stipee M , Canino G , et al.   Parent and child contributions to diagnosis of mental disorder (both informants always necessary?) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1999;38:1569–1579
  24. Barkley R . Child behavior rating scales and checklists . In:  Rutter M ,  Tuma A ,  Lann I editor. Assessment and Diagnosis in Child Psychopathology . New York, NY: Guilford; 1988;p. 113–155
  25. Barkley RA . Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment) . (ed 2). New York, NY: Guilford; 1998;
  26. Dulcan M . Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:85–121
  27. Eisert DC , Sturner RA , Mabe PA . Questionnaires in behavioral pediatrics (guidelines for selection and use) . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 1991;12:42–50
  28. McGough J , McCracken JT . Assessment of ADHD (a review of the recent literature) . Curr Opin Pediatr . 2000;12:319–324
  29. Kazdin K , Esveldt-Dawson K , Loar LL . Correspondence of teacher ratings and direct observations of classroom behavior of psychiatric inpatient children . J Abnorm Child Psych . 1983;11:549–564
  30. Schachar R , Sandberg S , Rutter M . Agreement between teachers and parents (ratings and observations of hyperactivity, inattentiveness and defiance) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1986;14:331–345
  31. Achenbach TM , McConaughy SH , Howell CT . Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems (implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity) . Psychol Bull . 1987;101:213–232
  32. Costello EJ , Loeber R , Stouthamer-Loeber M . Pervasive and situational hyperactivity–confounding effect of informant (a research note) . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1991;32:367–376
  33. DuPaul GJ , Power TJ , McGoey KE , et al.   Reliability and validity of parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder symptoms . J Psychoeduc Assess . 1998;16:55–68
  34. DuPaul GJ . Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms (psychometric properties in a community-based sample) . J Clin Child Psychol . 1991;20:245–253
  35. Sprafkin J , Gadow KD , Salisbury H , et al.   Further evidence of reliability and validity of the Child Symptom Inventory-4 (Parent checklist in clinically referred boys) . J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol . 2002;31:513–524
  36. Bussing R , Schoenberg NE , Perwien AR . Knowledge and information about ADHD (evidence of cultural differences among African-American and white parents) . Soc Sci Med . 1998;46:919–928
  37. Fantuzzo J , Grim S , Mordell M , et al.   A multivariate analysis of the revised Connors’ teacher rating scale with low income urban preschool children . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 2001;29:141–152
  38. Reid R , DuPaul GJ , Power TJ , et al.   Assessing culturally different students for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder using behavior rating scales . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1998;26:187–198
  39. Reid R , Casat CD , Norton H , et al.   Using behavior rating scales for ADHD across ethnic groups (the IOWA Conners) . J Emot Behav Disord . 2001;9:210–218
  40. Levine MD , Busch B , Aufseeser C . The dimension of inattention among children with school problems . Pediatrics . 1982;70:387–395
  41. DuPaul GJ , Anastopoulos AD , Power TJ , et al.   Parent ratings of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms (factor structure and normative data) . J Psychopathol Behav . 1998;20:83–102
  42. Sharp WS , Gottesman RF , Greenstein DK , et al.   Monozygotic twins discordant for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ascertainment and clinical characteristics) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2003;42:93–97
  43. Faraone SV , Monuteaux MC , Biederman J , et al.   Does parental ADHD bias maternal reports of ADHD symptoms in children? . J Consult Clin Psychol . 2003;71:168–175
  44. DuPaul GJ , Power TP , Anastopoulos AD , et al.   Teacher ratings of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms (factor structure and normative data) . Psychol Assess . 1997;9:436–444
  45. Baumgaertel MD , Wolraich ML , Dietrich M . Comparison of diagnostic criteria for attention deficit disorders in a German elementary school sample . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1995;34:629–638
  46. Carlson CL , Tamm L , Miranda G . Gender differences in children with ADHD, ODD, and co-occurring ADHD/ODD identified in a school population . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:1706–1714
  47. Danforth JS , DuPaul GJ . Interrater reliability of teacher rating scales for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . J Psychopathol Behav Assess . 1996;18:227–237
  48. Gaub M , Carlson CL . Behavioral characteristics of DSM-IV ADHD subtypes in a school-based population . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1997;25:103–111
  49. Nolan E , Gadow K , Sprafkin J . Teacher reports of DSM-IV ADHD, ODD, and CD Symptoms in schoolchildren . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40: 241—149
  50. Wolraich ML , Hannah JN , Pinnock TY , et al.   Comparison of diagnostic criteria for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in a county-wide sample . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1996;35:319–324
  51. Wolraich ML , Hannah JN , Baumgaertel A , et al.   Examination of DSM-IV criteria for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a county-wide sample . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 1998;19:162–168
  52. Wolraich ML , Feurer ID , Hannah JN , et al.   Obtaining systematic teacher reports of disruptive behavior disorders utilizing DSM-IV . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1998;26:141–152
  53. Wolraich ML: Vanderbilt ADHD Teacher Rating Scale (VADTRS) and the Vanderbilt ADHD Parent Rating Scale (VADPRS). Available at: www.nichq.org. Accessed July 2004
  54. Dominguez de Ramirez R , Shapiro ES . Teacher ratings of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in Hispanic children . J Psychopathol Behav Assess . 1998;20:275–293
  55. Stevens J , Quittner AL , Abikoff H . Factors influencing elementary school teachers’ ratings of ADHD and ODD behaviors . J Clin Child Psychol . 1998;27:406–414
  56. Achenbach TM , Rescorla LA . Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles . Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families; 2000;
  57. Gadow KD , Sprafkin J . Adolescent Symptom Inventory 4 (Screening Manual) . Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus; 1997;
  58. Gadow KD , Sprafkin J . Child Symptom Inventory 4 (Norms Manual) . Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus; 1997;
  59. Gadow KD , Sprafkin J . Early Childhood Inventory 4 (Norms Manual) . Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus; 1997;
  60. Gadow KD , Sprafkin J . ADHD Symptom Checklist-4 Manual . Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus; 1997;
  61. Gadow KD , Sprafkin J . Adolescent Symptom Inventory 4 (Norms Manual) . Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus; 1998;
  62. Gadow KD , Sprafkin J . Child Symptom Inventory-4 Screening Manual . Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus; 1998;
  63. Abikoff H , Courtney M , Pelham WE , et al.   Teachers’ ratings of disruptive behaviors (the influence of halo effects) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1993;21:519–533
  64. Jackson D , King A . Gender differences in the effect of oppositional behavior on teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 2004;32:215–224
  65. Nolan EE , Volpe RJ , Gadow KD , et al.   Developmental, gender, and comorbidity differences in clinically referred children with ADHD . J Emotional Behav Disord . 1999;7:11–20
  66. Gadow KD , Nolan EE , Litcher L , et al.   Comparison of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom subtypes in Ukrainian schoolchildren . J Am Acad Child and Adolescent Psychiatry . 2000;39:1520–1527
  67. Atkins MS , Pelham WE , Licht MH . The differential validity of teacher ratings of inattention/overactivity and aggression . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1989;17:423–435
  68. Jerome L , Gordon M , Hustler P . A comparison of American and Canadian teachers’ knowledge and attitudes towards attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) . Can J Psychiatry . 1994;39:563–567
  69. Johnston C , Pelham WE . Teacher ratings predict peer ratings of aggression at 3-year follow-up in boys with attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity . J Consult Clin Psychol . 1986;54:571–572
  70. MTA Cooperative Group . 14-Month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1999;56:1073–1086
  71. Achenbach TM , Rescorla LA . Manual for the ASEBA Preschool-Age Forms & Profiles . Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families; 2002;
  72. Biederman J , Farone S , Milberger S , et al.   Diagnoses of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder from parent reports predicted diagnoses based on teacher reports . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1992;32:315–317
  73. Casat CD , Norton HJ , Boyle-Whitesel M . Identification of elementary school children at risk for disruptive behavioral disturbance (validation of a combined screening method) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1999;38:1246–1253
  74. Lahey B , McBurnett K , Piacentinit J , et al.   Agreement of parent and teacher rating scales with comprehensive clinical assessments of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity . J Psychol Behav Assess . 1987;9:429–439
  75. Newcorn JH , Halperin JM , Schwartz S , et al.   Parent and teacher ratings of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms (implications for case identification) . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 1994;15:86–91
  76. Power TJ , Andrews TJ , Eiraldi RB , et al.   Evaluating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder using multiple informants (the incremental utility of combining teacher with parent reports) . Psychol Assess . 1998;10:250–260
  77. Power TJ , Doherty BJ , Panichelli-Mindel SM , et al.   The predictive validity of parent and teacher reports of ADHD symptoms . J Psychopathol Behav . 1998;20:57–81
  78. Power TJ , Costigan TE , Leff SS , et al.   Assessing ADHD across settings (contributions of behavioral assessment to categorical decision making) . J Clin Child Psychol . 2001;30:399–412
  79. Wolraich ML , Lambert EW , Bickman L , et al.   Assessing the impact of parent and teacher agreement on diagnosing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 2004;25:41–47
  80. Leslie L , Weckerly J , Plemmons’ D , et al.   Implementing the American Academy of Pediatrics ADHD diagnostic guidelines . Pediatrics . 2004;114:129–141
  81. Reynolds CR , Kamphaus RW . Behavioral Assessment System for Children Manual. . Circle Pines, MN: AGS; 1992;
  82. Crystal D , Ostrander R , Chen RS , et al.   Multimodal assessment of psychopathology among DSM-IV subtypes of children with ADHD (self, parent and teacher reports) . J Abnorm Child Psychology . 2001;29:189–205
  83. Baren M . ADHD in adolescents (will you know what it is when you see it?) . Contemp Pediatr . 2002;19:124–143
  84. Reich W , Herjanic B , Welzer Z , et al.   Development of a structured psychiatric interview for children (agreement on diagnosis comparing child and parent interviews) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1982;10:325–336
  85. Dankaets M , Heptinstall E , Chadwick O , et al.   Self report of ADHD in adolescents . Psychopathology . 1999;32:81–91
  86. Schaunghency E , McGee R , Raja SN , et al.   Self reported inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity at ages 15 and 18 years in the general population . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1994;33:173–184
  87. Stancin T , Palermo TM . A review of behavioral screening practices in pediatric settings (do they pass the test?) . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 1997;18:183–194
  88. Biederman J , Newcorn J , Sprich S . Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders . Am J Psychiatry . 1991;148:564–577
  89. Biederman J , Faraone SV , Milberger S , et al.   Is childhood oppositional defiant disorder a precursor to adolescent conduct disorder? Findings from a four-year follow-up study of children with ADHD . J Am Acad Child and Adolescent Psychiatry . 1996;35:1193–1204
  90. Bird H , Gould M , Staghezza-Jaramillo B . The comorbidity of ADHD in a community sample of children aged 6 through 16 years . J Child Fam Stud . 1990;3:365–378
  91. Eiraldi RB , Power TJ , Nezu CM . Patterns of comorbidity associated with subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among 6-to 12-year-old children . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:503–514
  92. Jensen P , Martin C , Cantwell D . Comorbidity in ADHD (implications for research, practice, and DSM-IV) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:1065–1079
  93. Jensen PS , Hinshaw SP , Kraemer HC , et al.   ADHD comorbidity findings from the MTA study (comparing comorbid subgroups) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40:147–158
  94. Kuhne M , Schachar R , Tannock R . Impact of comorbid oppositional or conduct problems on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:1715–1725
  95. Swanson JM , Kraemer HC , Hinshaw SP , et al.   Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA (success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40:168–179
  96. Willcutt EG , Pennington BF , Chhabildas NA , et al.   Psychiatric comorbidity associated with DSM-IV ADHD in a nonreferred sample of twins . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1999;38:1355–1362
  97. Wolraich ML , Lambert EW , Worley KA , et al.   Psychometric properties of the Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Rating Scale in a referred population . J Pediatr Psychol . 2003;28:559–568
  98. Swanson J . School Based Assessments and Interventions for ADD Students. . Irvine, CA: KC; 1992;
  99. Collett B , Ohan J , Myers K . Ten year review of rating scales. V: scales assessing ADHD . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2003;42:1015–1037
  100. Myers K , Winters NC . Ten-year review of rating scales, I:Overview of scale functioning, psychometric properties, and selection . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2002;41:114–122
  101. Myers N , Winters N . Ten year review of rating scales. I: overview of scale functioning, psychometric properties and selection . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2002;42:1015–1037
  102. Snyder S , Drozd J , Xenakis S . Validation of adhd rating scales . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2004;43:1189–1190
  103. Collett B , Ohan J , Myers K . Validation of adhd rating scales . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2004;43:1191–1199
  104. Conners CK . Validation of ADHD rating scales . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2004;43:1190–1191 (letter)
  105. Conners C . Conners’ Rating Scales-Revised Technical Manual . North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems; 1997;
  106. Conners C , Sitarenios G , Parker JD , et al.   The revised Conners’ Parent Rating Scale (CPRS-R) (factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1998;26:257–268
  107. Conners C , Sitarenios G , Parker JD , et al.   Revision and restandardization of the Conners Teacher Rating Scale (CTRS-R) (factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1998;26:279–291
  108. Conners C , Wells KC , Parker JD , et al.   A new self-report scale for assessment of adolescent psychopathology (factor structure, reliability, validity, and diagnostic sensitivity) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1997;25:487–497
  109. Connors CK , Wells K . Connor-Wells Adolescent Self Report Scale . North Tonowanda, NY: MultiHealth Systems; 1997;
  110. Steer RA , Kumar G , Beck AT . Use of the Conners-Wells’ Adolescent Self-Report Scale (Short Form with psychiatric outpatients) . J Psychopathol Behav . 2001;23:231–239
  111. Pelham W , Milich R , Murphy D , et al.   Normative data on the IOWA Conners Teacher Rating Scale . J Clin Child Psychol . 1989;3:259–262
  112. Gianarris WJ , Golden CJ , Greene L . The Conners’ Parent Rating Scales (a critical review of the literature) . Clin Psychol Rev . 2001;21:1061–1093
  113. Swanson J, Schuck S, Mann M, et al: Overidentification of the extreme behavior in the evaluation and diagnosis of ADHD/HKD. Available at: www.adhd.net. Accessed July 2004
  114. Swanson J, Schuck S, Mann M, et al: Categorical and dimensional definitions and evaluations of symptoms of ADHD: the SNAP and SWAN ratings scales (ADHD Web Site). Available at: http://www.adhd.net. Accessed July 2004
  115. McCarney SB . The Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale, Home Version, Technical Manual . Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Service; 1989;
  116. McCarney SB . The Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale, Teacher-Version, Technical Manual . Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Service; 1989;
  117. McCarney SB . The Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale, Home Version, Technical Manual . (ed 2). Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Service; 1995;
  118. McCarney SB . The Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale, School Version, Technical Manual . (ed 2). Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Service; 1995;
  119. Collett BR , Crowley SL , Gimpel GA , et al.   The factor structure of DSM-IV attention deficit-hyperactivity symptoms (a confirmatory factor analysis of the ADHD-SRS) . J Psychoeduc Assess . 2000;18:361–373
  120. Holland ML , Gimpel GA , Merrell KW . Innovations in assessing ADHD (development, psychometric properties, and factor structure of the ADHD Symptoms Rating Scale (ADHD-SRS)) . J Psychopathol Behav . 1998;20:307–332
  121. Holland ML , Gimpel GA , Merrell KW . ADHD Symptoms Rating Scale Manual . Wilmington, DE: Wide Range; 2001;
  122. MTA Cooperative Group . Moderator and mediator challenges to the MTA study (effects of comorbid anxiety disorder, family poverty, session attendance, and community medication on treatment outcome) . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1999;56:1088–1096
  123. Swanson J , Lerner M , March J , et al.   Assessment and intervention for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the schools (lessons from the MTA study) . Pediatr Clin North Am . 1999;46:993–1009
  124. Goyette CH , Conners CK , Ulrich RF . Normative data on revised Conners’ Parent and Teacher Rating Scales . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1978;6:221–236
  125. Wolraich ML , Lambert W , Doffing MA , et al.   Psychometric properties of the Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic parent rating scale in a referred population . J Pediatr Psychol . 2003;28:559–567
  126. Arnold LE . Sex differences in ADHD (conference summary) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1996;24:555–569
  127. Biederman J , Faraone SV , Mick E , et al.   Clinical correlates of ADHD in females (findings from a large group of girls ascertained from pediatric and psychiatric referral sources) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1999;38:966–975
  128. Gaub M , Carlson CL . Gender differences in ADHD (a metaanalysis and critical review) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:1036–1045
  129. Hinshaw SP . Preadolescent girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, I (background characteristics, comorbidity, cognitive and social functioning, and parenting practices) . J Consult Clin Psychol . 2002;70:1086–1098
  130. Newcorn J , Halperin J , Jensen P , et al.   Symptom profiles in children with ADHD (effects of comorbidity and gender) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40:137–146
  131. Ohan JL , Johnston C . Are the performance overestimates given by boys with ADHD self-protective? . J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol . 2002;31:230–241
  132. Quinn PO , Nadeau KG . Gender Issues and AD/HD (Research, Diagnosis, and Treatment) . Silver Spring, MD: Advantage; 2002;
  133. Biederman J , Mick E , Faraone SV , et al.   Influence of gender on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children referred to a psychiatric clinic . Am J Psychiatry . 2002;159:36–42
  134. Valla JP , Bergeron L , Breton JJ , et al.   Informants, correlates and child disorders in a clinical population . Can J Psychiatry . 1993;38:406–411
  135. DuPaul GJ , Power TJ , Anastopoulos AD , et al.   ADHD Rating Scale-IV (Checklist, Norms, and Clinical Interpretation) . New York, NY: Guilford; 1998;
  136. Connor DF . Preschool attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (a review of prevalence, diagnosis, neurobiology, and stimulant treatment) . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 2002;23(suppl):S1–S9
  137. Palfrey J , Levin M , Walker D , et al.   The emergence of attention deficit disorder in early childhood . J Behav Dev Pediatr . 1985;6:339–348
  138. Bhatia MS , Nigam VR , Bohra N , et al.   Attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity among pediatric outpatients . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1999;32:297–306
  139. Earls F . Prevalence of behavior problems in 3 year old children (a cross-national replication) . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1980;37:1153–1157
  140. Keenan K , Shaw DS , Walsh B , et al.   DSM-III-R disorders in preschool children from low-income families . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:620–627
  141. Keenan K , Wakschlag LS . More than the terrible twos (the nature and severity of behavior problems in clinic-referred preschool children) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 2000;28:33–46
  142. Pineda D , Ardila A , Rosselli M , et al.   Prevalence of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity among pediatric outpatients . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1999;32:297–306
  143. DuPaul GJ , McGoey KE , Eckert TL , et al.   Preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (impairments in behavioral, social, and school functioning) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40:508–515
  144. McClellan J , Speltz M . Psychiatric diagnosis in preschool children . J American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry . 2003;42:127–128
  145. Phillips PL , Greenson JN , Collett BR , et al.   Assessing ADHD symptoms in preschool children (use of the ADHD Symptoms Rating Scale) . Early Educ Dev . 2002;13:283–299
  146. Speltz ML , McClellan J , DeKlyen M , et al.   Preschool boys with oppositional defiant disorder (clinical presentation and diagnostic change) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1999;38:838–845
  147. Campbell SB . Behavior Problems in Preschoolers (Clinical and Developmental Issues) . New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1990;
  148. Lavigne J , Arend R , Rosenbaum D , et al.   Psychiatric disorders with onset in the preschool years, I (stability of diagnoses) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1998;37:1246–1254
  149. Richman N , Stevenson J , Graham PJ . Preschool to School (A Behavioural Study) . London: Academic Press; 1982;
  150. McGee R , Partridge F , Williams SB , et al.   A twelve year follow-up of preschool hyperactive children . J Am Acad Child Psychiatry . 1991;30:224–232
  151. Mesman J , Koot H . Early preschool predictors of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing DSM-IV diagnoses . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40:1029–1036
  152. Kadesjö C , Kadesjö B , Hägglöf B , et al.   ADHD in Swedish 3- to 7-year-old children . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40:1021–1028
  153. Wilens T , Biederman J , Brown S , et al.   Patterns of psychopathology and dysfunction in clinically referred preschoolers . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 2002;23:S31–S36
  154. Wilens TE , Biederman J , Brown S , et al.   Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and school-age youths with ADHD . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2002;41:262–268
  155. Gadow K , Sprafkin J , Nolan E . DSM-IV symptoms in community and clinic preschool children . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2001;40:1383–1392
  156. Kadesjö B , Gillberg C . Attention deficits and clumsiness in Swedish 7-year-old children . Dev Med Child Neurol . 1998;40:796–804
  157. Behar L . The preschool behavior questionnaire . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1977;5:265–276
  158. Connor DF . Preschool attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (a review of prevalence, diagnosis, neurobiology, and stimulant treatment) . J Dev Behav Pediatr . 2002;23(1 Suppl):1–9
  159. Routh DK , Schroeder C , O’Tuama L . Development of activity level in children . Dev Psychol . 1974;10:163–168
  160. Sprafkin J , Gadow KD . Early Childhood Inventories Manual . Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus; 1996;
  161. Sprafkin J , Volpe R , Gadow K , et al.   A DSM-IV–Referenced Screening Instrument for Preschool Children (The Early Childhood Inventory-4) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 2002;41:604–612
  162. Nahlik J . Issues in diagnosis of ADHD in adolescents . Clin Pediatr . 2004;43:1–10
  163. Robin AL . ADHD in Adolescents (Diagnosis and Treatment) . New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1998;
  164. Smith BH , Pelham WE , Gnagy E , et al.   The reliability, validity, and unique contributions of self-report by adolescents receiving treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . J Consult Clin Psychol . 2000;68:489–499
  165. Ullman RK , Sleator EK , Sprague RL . ACTeRS Teacher & Parent Forms Manual . Champaign, IL: MetriTech; 2000;
  166. Nass R . Attention deficit disorder (facts and myths) . Int Pediatr . 1995;10:236–241
  167. Hudziak JJ , Health AC , Madden PF , et al.   Latent class and factor analysis of DSM-IV ADHD (a twin study of female adolescents) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1998;37:848–857
  168. Faraone SV , Doyle AE . The nature and heritability of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder . Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin North Am . 2001;10:299–316
  169. Biederman J , Faraone SV . Current concepts on the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . J Atten Disord . 2002;6(suppl 1):S7–S16
  170. Nichols P , Chen T . Minimal Brain Dysfunction . Lawrence, NJ: Erlbaum Assoc; 1981;
  171. Waldrup M , Pedersen F , Bell RQ . Minor physical anomalies and behavior in preschool children . Child Dev . 1968;39:391–400
  172. Close JH . Abbott Laboratories. Physical and Neurological Examination for Soft Signs (PANESS) . 1976; NIMH, Rockville, MD
  173. Denckla MB . Development of speed in repetitive and successive finger movements in normal children . Dev Med Child Neurol . 1973;15:635–645
  174. Denckla MB . Development of motor coordination in normal children . Dev Med Child Neurol . 1974;16:729–741
  175. Denckla MB . Revised physical and neurological examination for subtle signs . Psychopharmacol Bull . 1985;21:773–800
  176. Landgren M , Kjellman B , Gillberg C . Deficits in attention, motor control and perception (DAMP) (a simplified school entry examination) . Acta Paediatr . 2000;89:302–309
  177. Levine M . Neurodevelopmental Examinations (PEET, PEER, PEEX 2, PEERAMID 2) . Cambridge, MA: Educational Publishing Services, Inc; 1990;
  178. Touwen B , Prechtl H . Neurological Examination in Minimal Brain Dysfunction . London: Spastics International; 1970;
  179. Denckla MB . Dyslexia . In:  Blaw M ,  Rapin I ,  Kinsbourne M editor. Topics in Child Neurology . New York, NY: Spectrum Press; 1977;
  180. Largo RH , Caflisch JA , Hug F , et al.   Neuromotor development from 5 to 18 years. Part 2: associated movements . Dev Med Child Neurol . 2001;43:444–453
  181. Cohen HJ , Taft LT , Mahadeviah MS , et al.   Developmental changes in overflow in normal and aberrantly functioning children . J Pediatr . 1967;71:39–47
  182. Denckla MB , Rudel RG . Anomalies of motor development in hyperactive boys . Ann Neurol . 1978;3:231–233
  183. Mostofsky SH , Lasker AG , Cutting LE , et al.   Oculomotor abnormalities in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (a preliminary study) . Neurology . 2001;57:423–430
  184. Piek JP , Pitcher TM , Hay DA . Motor coordination and kinaesthesis in boys with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder . Dev Med Child Neurol . 1999;41:159–165
  185. Reeves J , Werry J . Soft signs in hyperactivity . In:  Tupper D editors. Soft Neurological Signs . Orlando, FL: Grune and Stratton; 1987;p. 225–246
  186. Szatmari P , Taylor DC . Overflow movements and behavior problems (scoring and using a modification of Fogs’ test) . Dev Med Child Neurol . 1984;26:297–310
  187. Touwen B . The meaning and value of soft signs . In:  Tupper D editors. Soft Neurological Signs . Orlando, FL: Grune and Stratton; 1987;p. 281–296
  188. Mostofsky SH , Newschaffer CJ , Denckla MB . Overflow movements predict impaired response inhibition in children with ADHD . Percept Mot Skills . 2003;97:1315–1331
  189. Prechtl H . Choreiform movements . In:  Tupper D editors. Soft Neurological Signs . Orlando, FL: Grune and Stratton; 1987;p. 247–254
  190. Landgren M , Kjellman B , Gillberg C . Attention deficit disorder with developmental coordination disorders . Arch Dis Child . 1998;79:207–212
  191. Baron I . Pediatric Neuropsychology . New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2002;
  192. Lezak MD . Neuropsychological Assessment . (ed 3). New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1995;
  193. Matier K , Perachio N , Newcorn JH , et al.   Differential diagnosis of ADHD (are objective measures of attention, impulsivity and activity level helpful?) . Child Neuropsychol . 1995;1:118–127
  194. Harris EL , Schuerholz LJ , Singer HS , et al.   Executive function in children with Tourette syndrome and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . J Int Neuropsychol Soc . 1995;1:511–516
  195. McBurnett K , Harris SM , Swanson JM , et al.   Neuropsychological and psychophysiological differentiation of inattention/overactivity and aggression/defiance symptom groups . J Clin Child Psychol . 1995;22:165–171
  196. Pennington B , Ozonoff S . Executive function and developmental psychopathology . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1996;37:51–87
  197. Wechsler D . Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) . San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment Inc; 2002;
  198. Wechsler D . Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Third edition (WISC-III) . San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment Inc; 2000;
  199. Kaufman D . Intelligent Testing With the WISC–III . San Antonio, TX: Harcourt Assessment Inc; 1994;
  200. Schmitt AJ , Wodrich DI . Validation of a Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment (NEPSY) through comparison of neurological, scholastic concerns, and control groups . Arch Clin Neuropsychol . 2004;19(8):1077–1093
  201. Brown TE . Brown Attention-Deficit Disorder Scales for Children and Adolescents . San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation; 2001;
  202. Isquith P , Gioia G . Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function . Austin, TX: Psychological Corporation; 2002;
  203. Mahone EM , Hagelthorn KM , Cutting LE , et al.   Effects of IQ on executive function measures in children with ADHD . Child Neuropsychology . 2002;8:52–65
  204. Giancola PR , Mezzich AC , Tarter RE . Executive cognitive functioning, temperament and antisocial behavior in conduct disordered adolescent females . J Abnorm Psychol . 1998;107:629–641
  205. Nigg JT , Hinshaw SP , Carte ET , et al.   Neuropsychological correlates of childhood ADHD. Explainable by comorbid disruptive behavior or reading problems . J Abnorm Psychol . 1998;107:468–480
  206. Oosterlaan J , Logan GD , Sargeant J . Response inhibition in ADHD, conducts disorder, comorbid ADHD/CD, anxious and control children . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1998;39:411–425
  207. Campbell SB , Breaux A , Ewing L , et al.   A one year follow-up study of patient referred hyperactive preschool children . J Am Acad Child Psychiatry . 1984;23:243–249
  208. Coates SW . Preschool Embedded Figures Test . Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1972;
  209. Maccoby E , Hagen JW . Effect of distortion upon central vs. incidental recall (developmental trends) . J Exp Child Psychol . 1965;2:280–289
  210. Seidman LJ , Biederman J , Monuteaux MC , et al.   Learning disabilities and executive dysfunction in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Neuropsychology . 2001;15:544–556
  211. Mahone EM , Hagelthorn KM , Cutting LE , et al.   Effects of IQ on executive function measures in children with ADHD . Child Neuropsychol . 2002;8:52–65
  212. Shallice T , Burgess PW . Deficits in strategy application following frontal lobe damage in man . Brain . 1991;114:727–741
  213. Clark C , Prior M , Kinsella G . Do executive function deficits differentiate between adolescents with ADHD and ODD/CD? . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 2000;28:403–413
  214. Castellanos FX , Tannock R . Neuroscience of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (the search for endophenotypes) . Nat Rev Neurosci . 2002;3:617–628
  215. Epstein JN , Erkanli A , Conners CK , et al.   Relations between continuous performance test performance measures and ADHD behaviors . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 2003;31:543–554
  216. Conners CK . Conners’ Continuous Performance Test II (CPT II) . Toronto, Canada: MultiHealth Systems; 2000;
  217. Casey BJ , Castellanos FX , Giedd JN , et al.   Implication of right frontostriatal circuitry in response inhibition and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1997;36:374–383
  218. Forbes GB . Clinical utility of the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA) in the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . J Clin Psychol . 1998;54:461–476
  219. Greenberg LM , Waldman ID . Developmental normative data on the test of variables of attention (TOVA) . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1993;34:1019–1030
  220. Halperin JM , Sharma V , Greenblatt E , et al.   Assessment of the continuous performance test (reliability and validity in a non-referred sample) . J Consult Clin Psychol . 1991;3:603–608
  221. Corkum PV , Siegel LS . Is the continuous performance task a valuable research tool for use with children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1993;34:1217–1239
  222. McGee RA , Clark SE , Symons DK . Does the Connors Continuous Performance Test aid in the diagnosis of ADHD? . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 2000;28:415–424
  223. Halperin JM , Sharma V , Greenblatt E , et al.   Assessment of the continuous performance test (Reliability and validity in a nonreferred sample) . Psychological Assessment . 1991;3:603–608
  224. Conners CK , Epstein JN , Angold A , et al.   Continuous performance test performance in a normative epidemiological sample . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 2003;31:555–562
  225. Barkeley et al, 1990
  226. Koriath U , Gualtieri CT , Van Bourgondien ME , et al.   Construct validity of clinical diagnosis in pediatric psychiatry (relationship among measures) . J Am Acad of Child Psychiatry . 1985;24:429–436
  227. Gordon M . Do computerized measures of attention have a legitimate role in ADHD evaluations . ADHD Reports . 1993;1:5–6
  228. Losier BJ , McGrath PJ , Klein RM . Error patterns on the continuous performance test in non medicated and medicated samples of children with and without ADHD (a meta-analysis review) . J Child Psychol Psychiatry . 1996;37:971–987
  229. Fischer M , Newby RG , Gordon M . Who are the false negatives on continuous performance tests? . J Clin Child Psychol . 1995;24:427–433
  230. Epstein et al, 1997
  231. Semrud-Clikeman M , Filipek PA , Biederman J , et al.   Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (magnetic resonance imaging morphometric analysis of the corpus callosum) . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1994;33:875–881
  232. Tarnowski et al, 1986
  233. Draeger S , Prior M , Sanson A . Visual and auditory attention performance in hyperactive children (competence or compliance) . J Abnorm Child Psychol . 1986;14(3):411–424
  234. Levy F , Hobbes G . Discrimination of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder by the continuous performance test. [Clinical Trial. Controlled Clinical Trial. Journal Article] . J Paediatr Child Health . 1997;33(5):384–387
  235. Barkley, 1991
  236. Charbot RJ , Merkin H , Wood LM . Sensitivity and specificity of QEEG in children with ADHD or specific developmental learning disorders . Clin Electroencephalogr . 1996;27:26–34
  237. Kuperman S , Johnson R , Arndt S . Quantitative EEG differences in a non clinical sample of children with ADHD and undifferentiated ADD . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1996;35:1009–1017
  238. Linden M , Gevirtz R , Isenhart R . Event related potentials of subgroups of children with ADHD and the implications for EEG biofeedback . J Neurother . 1996;1:1–11
  239. Monastra VJ , Lubar JF , Linden M . The development of quantitative EEG scanning process for ADHD (reliability and validity studies) . Neuropsychology . 2001;15:136–144
  240. Satterfield JH , Schell AM , Nicholas TW . Ontogeny of selective attention effects on event related potentials in ADHD and normal boys . Biol Psychiatry . 1990;28:879–903
  241. Becker K , Sinzig J , Holtmann M . Attention deficits and subclinical epileptiform discharges (are EEG diagnostics in ADHD optional or essential?) . Dev Med Child Neruol . 2004;46:501–502
  242. Durston S . A review of the biological bases of ADHD (what have we learned from imaging studies?) . Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev . 2003;9:184–195
  243. Hill DE , Yeo RA , Campbell RA , et al.   Magnetic resonance imaging correlates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children . Neuropsychology . 2003;17:496–506
  244. Kates WR , Frederikse M , Mostofsky SH , et al.   MRI parcellation of the frontal lobe in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or Tourette syndrome . Psychiatry Res . 2002;116:63–81
  245. Mostofsky SH , Cooper KL , Kates WR , et al.   Smaller prefrontal and premotor volumes in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Biol Psychiatry . 2002;52:785–794
  246. Overmeyer S , Bullmore ET , Suckling J , et al.   Distributed grey and white matter deficits in hyperkinetic disorder (MRI evidence for anatomical abnormality in an attentional network) . Psychol Med . 2001;31:1425–1435
  247. Sowell E , Thompson P , Welcome S , et al.   Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . Lancet . 2003;362:1699–1707
  248. Seidman L , Valera E , Makris N . Structural Brain Imaging of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder . Biological Psychiatry . 2005;57:1263–1272
  249. Baumgardner TL , Singer HS , Denckla MB , et al.   Corpus callosum morphology in children with Tourette syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Neurology . 1996;47:477–482
  250. Giedd JN , Castellanos FX , Casey BJ , et al.   Quantitative morphology of the corpus callosum in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Am J Psychiatry . 1994;151:665–669
  251. Hynd GW , Semrud-Clikeman M , Lorys AR , et al.   Corpus callosum morphology in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (morphometric analysis of MRI) . J Learn Disabil . 1991;24:141–146
  252. Lyoo IK , Noam GG , Lee CK , et al.   The corpus callosum and lateral ventricles in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (a brain magnetic resonance imaging study) . Biol Psychiatry . 1996;40:1060–1063
  253. Berquin PC , Giedd JN , Jacobsen LK , et al.   Cerebellum in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (a morphometric MRI study) . Neurology . 1998;50(4):1087–1093
  254. Mostofsky SH , Reiss AL , Lockhart P , et al.   Evaluation of cerebellar size in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . J Child Neurol. . 1998;13:434–443
  255. Aylward EH , Reiss AL , Reader MJ , et al.   Basal ganglia volumes in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . J Child Neurol . 1996;11:112–115
  256. Bussing R , et al.   ADHD and conduct disorder (an MRI study in a community sample) . World J Biol Psychiatry . 2002;3:216–220
  257. Castellanos FX , Giedd JN , Marsh WL , et al.   Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1996;53:607–616
  258. Filipek PA , Semrud-Clikeman M , Steingard RJ , et al.   Volumetric MRI analysis comparing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal controls . Neurology . 1997;48:589–601
  259. Castellanos FX , Giedd JN , Eckburg P , et al.   Quantitative morphology of the caudate nucleus in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Am J Psychiatry . 1994;151:1791–1796
  260. Castellanos FX , Lee PP , Sharp W , et al.   Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . JAMA . 2002;288:1740–1748
  261. Castellanos FX , Lee PP , Sharp W , et al.   Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . JAMA . 2002;288:1740–1748
  262. Hynd GW , Hern KL , Novey ES , et al.   Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and asymmetry of the caudate nucleus . J Child Neurol . 1993;8:339–347
  263. Mataró M , García-Sánchez C , Junqué C , et al.   Magnetic resonance imaging measurement of the caudate nucleus in adolescents with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and its relationship with neuropsychological and behavioral measures . Arch Neurol . 1997;54:963–968
  264. Castellanos FX , Giedd JN , Berquin PC , et al.   Quantitative brain magnetic resonance imaging in girls with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 2001;58:289–295
  265. Schrimsher GW , Billingsley RL , Jackson EF . Moore BD 3rd. Caudate nucleus volume asymmetry predicts attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology in children . Journal of Child Neurology . 2002;17(12):877–884
  266. Kim BN , et al.   Regional cerebral perfusion abnormalities in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Statistical parametric mapping analysis . Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci . 2002;252:219–225
  267. Castellanos FX . Proceed, with caution (SPECT cerebral blood flow studies of children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) . Comment on (J Nucl Med) . 2002;43:1624–1629 J Nucl Med 43:1630-1633, 2002
  268. Amen DG , Paldi JH . Evaluating ADHD with brain SPECT imaging . Biol Psychiatry . 1993;33:44
  269. Zametkin AJ , et al.   Cerebral glucose metabolism in adults with hyperactivity of childhood onset . N Engl J Med . 1990;323:1361–1366
  270. Zametkin AJ , Liebenauer LL , Fitzgerald GA , et al.   Brain metabolism in teenagers with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1993;50:333–340
  271. Ernst M , Liebenauer LL , King AC , et al.   Reduced brain metabolism in hyperactive girls . J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 1994;33:858–868
  272. Lou HC , Henriksen L , Bruhn P , et al.   Striatal dysfunction in attention deficit and hyperkinetic disorder . Arch Neurol . 1989;46:48–52
  273. Ernst M , Zametkin AJ , Matochik JA , et al.   High midbrain [18F]DOPA accumulation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder . Am J Psychiatry . 1999;156:1209–1215
  274. Bush G , Frazier JA , Rauch SL , et al.   Anterior cingulate cortex dysfunction in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder revealed by fMRI and the counting Stroop . Biol Psychiatry . 1999;45:1542–1552
  275. Teicher MH , Anderson CM , Polcari A , et al.   Functional deficits in basal ganglia of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder shown with functional magnetic resonance imaging relaxometry . Nat Med. . 2000;6:470–473
  276. Jarvinen DW , Sprague RL . Using ACTeRS to screen minority children for ADHD (an examination of item bias) . In:  McCallum RS ,  Bracken BA editor. Attention Deficit Disorder (A Monograph of the Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment) . Knoxville, TN: Psychoeducational Corporation; 1995;p. 172–184

PII: S1071-9091(05)00080-X

doi: 10.1016/j.spen.2005.12.002

Seminars in Pediatric Neurology
Volume 12, Issue 4 , Pages 200-216 , December 2005