Seminars in Pediatric Neurology
Volume 13, Issue 4 , Pages 243-255 , December 2006

Pediatric Minor Traumatic Brain Injury

  • Kevin E. Gordon, MD, MS

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress reprint requests to Kevin E. Gordon, MD, MS, Department of Pediatrics, IWK Health Centre, 5850/5980 University Avenue, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3K 6R8.

References 

  1. Schutzman SA, Barnes P, Duhaime AC, et al. Evaluation and management of children younger than two years old with apparently minor head trauma: Proposed guidelines. Pediatrics. 2001;107:983–993
  2. Iverson GL. Outcome from mild traumatic brain injury. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2005;18:301–317
  3. Committee on Head Injury Nomenclature of the Congress of Neurological Surgeons. Glossary of head injury, including some definitions of injury to the cervical spine. Clin Neurosurg. 1966;12:386–394
  4. Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee (Practice parameter: The management of concussion in sports (summary statement)). Neurology. 1997;48:581–585
  5. Aubry M, Cantu R, Dvorak J, et al. Concussion in Sport (CIS) Group Summary and agreement statement of the 1st International Symposium on Concussion in Sport, Vienna 2001. Clin J Sport Med. 2002;12:6–11
  6. Sosin DM, Sacks JJ, Holmgreen P. Incidence of mild and moderate brain injury in the United States, 1991. Brain Inj. 1996;10:47–54
  7. Klassen TP, Reed MH, Stiell IG, et al. Variation in utilization of computed tomography scanning for the investigation of minor head trauma in children: A Canadian experience. Acad Emerg Med. 2000;7:739–744
  8. Holmes JF, Palchak MJ, MacFarlane T, et al. Performance of the pediatric glasgow coma scale in children with blunt head trauma. Acad Emerg Med. 2005;12:814–819
  9. Hahn YS, McLone DG. Risk factors in the outcome of children with minor head injury. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1993;19:135–142
  10. Kraus JF, Fife D, Cox P, et al. Incidence, severity, and external causes of pediatric brain injury. Am J Dis Child. 1986;140:687–693
  11. Engberg A, Teasdale TW. Traumatic brain injury in children in Denmark: A national 15-year study. Eur J Epidemiol. 1998;14:165–173
  12. Simon B, Letourneau P, Vitorino E, et al. Pediatric minor head trauma: Indications for computed tomographic scanning revisited. J Trauma. 2001;51:231–237
  13. Sosin DM, Sacks JJ, Holmgreen P. Incidence of mild and moderate brain injury in the United States, 1991. Brain Inj. 1996;10:47–54
  14. Gordon KE, Dooley JM, Wood EP. Descriptive epidemiology of concussion. Pediatr Neurol. 2006;34:376–378
  15. Willer B, Dumas J, Hutson A, et al. A population based investigation of head injuries and symptoms of concussion of children and adolescents in schools. Inj Prev. 2004;10:144–148
  16. Powell JW, Barber-Foss KD. Traumatic brain injury in high school athletes. JAMA. 1999;282:958–963
  17. Cassidy JD, Carroll LJ, Peloso PM, et al. WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Incidence, risk factors and prevention of mild traumatic brain injury: Results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J Rehabil Med. 2004;(suppl):28–60
  18. Davis RL, Mullen N, Makela M, et al. Cranial computed tomography scans in children after minimal head injury with loss of consciousness. Ann Emerg Med. 1994;24:640–645
  19. Davis RL, Hughes M, Gubler KD, et al. The use of cranial CT scans in the triage of pediatric patients with mild head injury. Pediatrics. 1995;95:345–349
  20. Wang MY, Griffith P, Sterling J, et al. Prospective population-based study of pediatric trauma patients with mild alterations in consciousness (Glasgow Coma Scale score of 13-14). Neurosurgery. 2000;46:1093–1099
  21. Palchak MJ, Holmes JF, Vance CW, et al. A decision rule for identifying children at low risk for brain injuries after blunt head trauma. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;42:492–506
  22. Graham ID, Stiell IG, Laupacis A, et al. Emergency physicians’ attitudes toward and use of clinical decision rules for radiography. Acad Emerg Med. 1998;5:134–140
  23. Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:100–105
  24. Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT Head Rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet. 2001;357:1391–1396
  25. Mower WR, Hoffman JR, Herbert M, et al. NEXUS II Investigators Developing a decision instrument to guide computed tomographic imaging of blunt head injury patients. J Trauma. 2005;59:954–959
  26. Oman JA, Cooper RJ, Holmes JF, et al. NEXUS II Investigators Performance of a decision rule to predict need for computed tomography among children with blunt head trauma. Pediatrics. 2006;117:e238–e246
  27. Da Dalt L, Marchi AG, Laudizi L, et al. Predictors of intracranial injuries in children after blunt head trauma. Eur J Pediatr. 2006;165:142–148
  28. Dunning J, Batchelor J, Stratford-Smith P, et al. A meta-analysis of variables that predict significant intracranial injury in minor head trauma. Arch Dis Child. 2004;89:653–659
  29. Homer CJ, Kleinman L. Technical report: Minor head injury in children. Pediatrics. 1999;104:e78
  30. Committee on Quality Improvement, American Academy of PediatricsCommission on Clinical Policies and Research, American Academy of Family Physicians. The management of minor closed head injury in children. Pediatrics. 1999;104:1407–1415
  31. Osmond MH, Klassen TP, Stiell IG, et al. CATCH Study Group A clinical decision rule for the use of head CT in children with minor head injury. Acad Emerg Med. 2004;11:449–450
  32. The Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network. The Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN): Rationale, development, and first steps. Acad Emerg Med. 2003;10:661–668
  33. Greenes DS. Decisionmaking in pediatric minor head trauma. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;42:515–518
  34. Ingebrigtsen T, Romner B. Routine early CT-scan is cost saving after minor head injury. Acta Neurol Scand. 1996;93:207–210
  35. Dias MS, Lillis KA, Calvo C, et al. Management of accidental minor head injuries in children: A prospective outcomes study. J Neurosurg. 2004;101(suppl):38–43
  36. Brown L, Moynihan JA, Denmark TK. Blunt pediatric head trauma requiring neurosurgical intervention: How subtle can it be?. Am J Emerg Med. 2003;21:467–472
  37. Bruce DA. Imaging after head trauma: Why, when and which. Childs Nerv Syst. 2000;16:755
  38. Brenner DJ, Elliston CD, Hall EJ, et al. Estimated risks of radiation-induced fatal cancer from pediatric CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2001;176:289–296
  39. Brenner DJ. Estimating cancer risks from pediatric CT: Going from qualitative to the quantitative. Pediatr Radiol. 2002;32:228–231
  40. Committee to Assess Health Risks From Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation. Health Risks From Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: BEIR VII Phase 2. Washington: The National Academies Press; 2006;
  41. National Cancer Institute: Radiation Risks and Pediatric Computed Tomography (CT): A Guide for Health Care Providers. Available at: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/causes/radiation-risks-pediatric-CT Accessed April 16, 2004.
  42. Ba-Ssalamaha A, Schick S, Heimberger K, et al. Ultrafast magnetic resonance imaging of the brain. Magn Reson Imaging. 2000;18:237–243
  43. Nygren C, Bellocco R, af Geijerstam J-L, et al. Delayed, intracranial complications after concussion: A population-based nested case-control study in Sweden (unpublished). Cited in Borg J, Holm L, Cassidy JD, et al; WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Diagnostic procedures in mild traumatic brain injury: Results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury J Rehabil Med. 2004;43(suppl):61–75
  44. Velmahos GC, Gervasini A, Petrovick L, et al. Routine repeat head CT for minimal head injury is unnecessary. J Trauma. 2006;60:494–499
  45. Mandal K, West CH. The management of immediate post-traumatic seizures in children following minor head injury—Time for a multicentre study?. Childs Nerv Syst. 2001;17:670–673
  46. Dias MS, Carnevale F, Li V. Immediate posttraumatic seizures: Is routine hospitalization necessary?. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1999;30:232–238
  47. McCrory PR, Berkovic SF. Video analysis of acute motor and convulsive manifestations in sport-related concussion. Neurology. 2000;54:1488–1491
  48. McCrory PR, Berkovic SF. Concussive convulsions (Incidence in sport and treatment recommendations). Sports Med. 1998;25:131–136
  49. Colorado Medical Society. Report of the Sports Medicine Committee: Guidelines for the Management of Concussions in Sport (revised). Denver, CO: Colorado Medical Society; 1991;
  50. Cantu RC. Posttraumatic retrograde and anterograde amnesia: Pathophysiology and implications in grading and safe return to play. J Athl Train. 2001;36:244–248
  51. Peloso PM, Carroll LJ, Cassidy JD, et al. Critical evaluation of the existing guidelines on mild traumatic brain injury. J Rehabil Med. 2004;43(suppl):106–112
  52. McCrory P, Johnston K, Meeuwisse W, et al. Summary and agreement statement of the 2nd International Conference on Concussion in Sport, Prague 2004. Clin J Sport Med. 2005;15:48–55
  53. Janusz JA, Gioia GA, Gilstein K, et al. Construct validity of the ImPACT post-concussion scale in children. Br J Sports Med. 2004;38:659
  54. Janusz JA, Gioia GA, Diver T, et al: Frequency of post-concussion symptom report in a pediatric sample. International Neuropsychology Society 34th Annual Meeting, Feb. 1-4, 2006, Boston, MA
  55. Maddocks DL, Dicker GD, Saling MM. The assessment of orientation following concussion in athletes. Clin J Sport Med. 1995;5:32–35
  56. Gordon KE, Dooley JM, Wood EP. Is migraine a risk factor for the development of concussion?. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40:184
  57. Matthews WB. Footballer’s migraine. BMJ. 1972;2:326–327
  58. Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society. The International Classification of Headache Disorders. Cephalalgia. 2004;24(suppl 1):9–160
  59. Margulies S. The postconcussion syndrome after mild head trauma (Part II: is migraine underdiagnosed?). J Clin Neurosci. 2000;7:495–499
  60. Guskiewicz KM, Weaver NL, Padua DA, et al. Epidemiology of concussion in collegiate and high school football players. Am J Sports Med. 2000;28:643–650
  61. http://www.thinkfirst.ca/documents/concussion-information-athletes.pdf. Accessed June 5, 2003.
  62. Collins MW, Iverson GL, Lovell MR, et al. On-field predictors of neuropsychological and symptom deficit following sports-related concussion. Clin J Sport Med. 2003;13:222
  63. Asplund CA, McKeag DB, Olsen CH. Sport-related concussion: Factors associated with prolonged return to play. Clin J Sport Med. 2004;14:339–343
  64. Lovell MR, Collins MW. Neuropsychological assessment of the college football player. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1998;13:9–26
  65. Piland SG, Motl RW, Ferrara MS, et al. Evidence for the factorial and construct validity of a Self-Report Concussion Symptoms Scale. J Athl Train. 2003;38:104–112
  66. Randolph C. Pediatric sport-related concussion: A review of the clinical management of an oft-neglected population. Pediatrics. 2006;117:1359–1371
  67. Guskiewicz KM, McCrea M, Marshall SW, et al. Cumulative effects associated with recurrent concussion in collegiate football players: The NCAA Concussion Study. JAMA. 2003;290:2549–2555
  68. McCrea M, Guskiewicz KM, Marshall SW, et al. Acute effects and recovery time following concussion in collegiate football players: The NCAA Concussion Study. JAMA. 2003;290:2556–2563
  69. Piland SG, Motl RW, Guskiewicz KM, et al. Structural validity of a self-report concussion-related symptom scale. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38:27–32
  70. Gioia GA: Evaluation of concussion in young children: The development of the pediatric ImPACT program. Presentation at the 2nd International Meeting on Minor Traumatic Brain Injuries in Sports, March 13-17, 2006, St. Moritz, Switzerland
  71. Kaut KP, DePompei R, Kerr J, et al. Reports of head injury and symptom knowledge among college athletes: Implications for assessment and educational intervention. Clin J Sport Med. 2003;13:213–221
  72. McCrea M, Hammeke T, Olsen G, et al. Unreported concussion in high school football players: Implications for prevention. Clin J Sport Med. 2004;14:13–17
  73. Carroll LJ, Cassidy JD, Peloso PM, et al. WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Prognosis for mild traumatic brain injury: Results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J Rehabil Med. 2004;43(suppl):84–105
  74. McCrea M, Kelly J, Randolph C. Standardized Assessment of Concussion (SAC): Manual for Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation. (ed 2).. Waukesha, WI: CNS Inc; 2000;
  75. McCrea M. Standardized mental status assessment of sports concussion. Clin J Sport Med. 2001;11:176–181
  76. Barr WB, McCrea M. Sensitivity and specificity of standardized neurocognitive testing immediately following sports concussion. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2001;7:693–702
  77. Young CC, Jacobs BA, Clavette K, et al. Serial sevens: Not the most effective test of mental status in high school athletes. Clin J Sport Med. 1997;7:196
  78. Guskiewicz KM. Postural stability assessment following concussion: One piece of the puzzle. Clin J Sport Med. 2001;11:182
  79. Guskiewicz KM. Assessment of postural stability following sport-related concussion. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2003;2:24–30
  80. Randolph C, McCrea M, Barr WB. Is neuropsychological testing useful in the management of sport-related concussion?. J Athl Train. 2005;40:139–152
  81. Collie A, Darby D, Maruff P. Computerised cognitive assessment of athletes with sports related head injury. Br J Sports Med. 2001;35:297–302
  82. Maruff P, Collie A, Anderson V, et al. Cognitive development in children: Implications for concussion management. Br J Sport Med. 2004;38:654–655
  83. Belanger HG, Vanderploeg RD. The neuropsychological impact of sports-related concussion: A meta-analysis. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2005;11:345
  84. Grindel SH. The use, abuse, and future of neuropsychologic testing in mild traumatic brain injury. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2006;5:9–14
  85. Pellman EJ, Viano DC, Casson IR, et al. Concussion in professional football: Injuries involving 7 or more days out—Part 5. Neurosurgery. 2004;55:1100–1119
  86. Field M, Collins MW, Lovell MR, et al. Does age play a role in recovery from sports-related concussion? (A comparison of high school and collegiate athletes). J Pediatr. 2003;142:546–553
  87. Farmer MY, Singer HS, Mellits ED, et al. Neurobehavioral sequelae of minor head injuries in children. Pediatr Neurosci. 1987;13:304–308
  88. Ponsford J, Willmott C, Rothwell A, et al. Cognitive and behavioral outcome following mild traumatic head injury in children. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1999;14:360–372
  89. Kraus JF, Fife D, Conroy C. Pediatric brain injuries: The nature, clinical course, and early outcomes in a defined United States’ population. Pediatrics. 1987;79:501–507
  90. Levi L, Guilburd JN, Linn S, et al. The association between skull fracture, intracranial pathology and outcome in pediatric head injury. Br J Neurosurg. 1991;5:617–625
  91. Luerssen TG, Klauber MR, Marshall LF. Outcome from head injury related to patient’s age (A longitudinal prospective study of adult and pediatric head injury). J Neurosurg. 1988;68:409–416
  92. Bruce DA, Alavi A, Bilaniuk L, et al. Diffuse cerebral swelling following head injuries in children: The syndrome of “malignant brain edema. ” J Neurosurg. 1981;54:170–178
  93. Snoek JW, Minderhoud JM, Wilmink JT. Delayed deterioration following mild head injury in children. Brain. 1984;107:15–36
  94. Lobato RD, Rivas JJ, Gomez PA, et al. Head-injured patients who talk and deteriorate into coma (Analysis of 211 cases studied with computerized tomography). J Neurosurg. 1991;75:256–261
  95. Plunkett J. Fatal pediatric head injuries caused by short-distance falls. Am J Forensic Med Pathol. 2001;22:1–12
  96. Cantu RC. Second-impact syndrome. Clin Sports Med. 1998;17:37–44
  97. Fekete JF. Severe brain injury and death following minor hockey accidents: The effectiveness of the “safety helmets” of amateur hockey players1. Can Med Assoc J. 1968;99:1234–1239
  98. McCrory PR, Berkovic SF. Second impact syndrome. Neurology. 1998;50:677–683
  99. McCrory P. Does second impact syndrome exist?. Clin J Sport Med. 2001;11:144–149
  100. Anderson V, Catroppa C, Morse S, et al. Recovery of intellectual ability following traumatic brain injury in childhood: Impact of injury severity and age at injury. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2000;32:282–290
  101. Bijur PE, Haslum M, Golding J. Cognitive and behavioral sequelae of mild head injury in children. Pediatrics. 1990;86:337–344
  102. Bijur PE, Haslum M, Golding J. Cognitive outcomes of multiple mild head injuries in children. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 1996;17:143–148
  103. Fay GC, Jaffe KM, Polissar NL, et al. Mild pediatric traumatic brain injury: A cohort study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993;74:895–901
  104. Fletcher JM, Ewing-Cobbs L, Miner ME, et al. Behavioral changes after closed head injury in children. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1990;58:93–98
  105. Jaffe KM, Polissar NL, Fay GC, et al. Recovery trends over three years following pediatric traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1995;76:17–26
  106. Light R, Asarnow R, Satz P, et al. Mild closed-head injury in children and adolescents: Behavior problems and academic outcomes. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1998;66:1023–1029
  107. Basson MD, Guinn JE, McElligott J, et al. Behavioral disturbances in children after trauma. J Trauma. 1991;31:1363–1368
  108. McKinlay A, Dalrymple-Alford JC, Horwood LJ, et al. Long term psychosocial outcomes after mild head injury in early childhood. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73:281–288
  109. DiScala C, Lescohier I, Barthel M, et al. Injuries to children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 1998;102:1415–1421
  110. Pastor PN, Reuben CA. Identified attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and medically attended, nonfatal injuries: US school-age children, 1997-2002. Ambul Pediatr. 2006;6:38–44
  111. Lovell MR, Collins MW, Iverson GL, et al. Grade 1 or “ding” concussions in high school athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2004;32:47–54
  112. Kirkwood MW, Yeates KO, Wilson PE. Pediatric sport-related concussion: a review of the clinical management of an oft-neglected population. Pediatrics. 2006;117:1359–1371
  113. Elliott JG. School refusal: Issues of conceptualisation, assessment, and treatment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999;40:1001–1012
  114. Comper P, Bisschop SM, Carnide N, et al. A systematic review of treatments for mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2005;19:863–880
  115. Ponsford J. Rehabilitation interventions after mild head injury. Curr Opin Neurol. 2005;18:692–697
  116. Gerberich SG, Priest JD, Boen JR, et al. Concussion incidences and severity in secondary school varsity football players. Am J Public Health. 1983;73:1370–1375
  117. Zemper ED. Two-year prospective study of relative risk of a second cerebral concussion. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2003;82:653–659
  118. Collins MW, Lovell MR, Iverson GL, et al. Cumulative effects of concussion in high school athletes. Neurosurgery. 2002;51:1175–1179
  119. Iverson GL, Gaetz M, Lovell MR, et al. Cumulative effects of concussion in amateur athletes. Brain Inj. 2004;18:433–443
  120. Cantu RC. Recurrent athletic head injury: Risks and when to retire. Clin Sports Med. 2003;22:593–603
  121. McCrory P. When to retire after concussion?. Br J Sports Med. 2001;35:380–382
  122. Johnston KM, Bloom GA, Ramsay J, et al. Current concepts in concussion rehabilitation. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2004;3:316–323
  123. Borg J, Holm L, Peloso PM, et al. ; WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Non-surgical intervention and cost for mild traumatic brain injury: Results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J Rehabil Med. 2004;43(suppl):76–83
  124. Ponsford J, Willmott C, Rothwell A, et al. Impact of early intervention on outcome after mild traumatic brain injury in children. Pediatrics. 2001;108:1297–1303
  125. Attewell RG, Glase K, McFadden M. Bicycle helmet efficacy: A meta-analysis. Accid Anal Prev. 2001;33:345–352
  126. Tsai YJ, Wang JD, Huang WF. Case-control study of the effectiveness of different types of helmets for the prevention of head injuries among motorcycle riders in Taipei, Taiwan. Am J Epidemiol. 1995;142:974–981
  127. Kraus JF, Peek C. The impact of two related prevention strategies on head injury reduction among nonfatally injured motorcycle riders (California, 1991-1993). J Neurotrauma. 1995;12:873–881
  128. Hagel BE, Pless IB, Goulet C, et al. Effectiveness of helmets in skiers and snowboarders: Case-control and case crossover study. BMJ. 2005;330:281
  129. Sulheim S, Holme I, Ekeland A, et al. Helmet use and risk of head injuries in alpine skiers and snowboarders. JAMA. 2006;295:919–924
  130. Dannenberg AL, Gielen AC, Beilenson PL, et al. Bicycle helmet laws and educational campaigns: An evaluation of strategies to increase children’s helmet use. Am J Public Health. 1993;83:667–674
  131. Shafi S, Gilbert JC, Loghmanee F, et al. Impact of bicycle helmet safety legislation on children admitted to a regional pediatric trauma center. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:317–321
  132. Macpherson AK, To TM, Macarthur C, et al. Impact of mandatory helmet legislation on bicycle-related head injuries in children: A population-based study. Pediatrics. 2002;110:e60
  133. Chiu WT, Kuo CY, Hung CC, et al. The effect of the Taiwan motorcycle helmet use law on head injuries. Am J Public Health. 2000;90:793–796
  134. Weiss BD. Trends in bicycle helmet use by children: 1985 to 1990. Pediatrics. 1992;89:78–80
  135. Hendrickson SG, Becker H. Impact of a theory based intervention to increase bicycle helmet use in low income children. Inj Prev. 1998;4:126–131
  136. DiGuiseppi CG, Rivara FP, Koepsell TD, et al. Bicycle helmet use by children (Evaluation of a community-wide helmet campaign). JAMA. 1989;262:2256–2261
  137. Parkin PC, Spence LJ, Hu X, et al. Evaluation of a promotional strategy to increase bicycle helmet use by children. Pediatrics. 1993;91:772–777
  138. Gordon KE, McTimmoney CAM, LeGay T. Helmets and gloves: A new piece of the concussion puzzle. Clin J Sport Med. 2006;16:195–197
  139. Irwin CE. The theoretical concept of at-risk adolescents. Adolesc Med. 1990;1:1–14
  140. Borawski EA, Ievers-Landis CE, Lovegreen LD, et al. Parental monitoring, negotiated unsupervised time, and parental trust: The role of perceived parenting practices in adolescent health risk behaviors. J Adolesc Health. 2003;33:60–70
  141. DiClemente RJ, Wingood GM, Crosby R, et al. Parental monitoring: Association with adolescents’ risk behaviors. Pediatrics. 2001;107:1363–1368
  142. Cohen DA, Farley TA, Taylor SN, et al. When and where do youths have sex? (The potential role of adult supervision). Pediatrics. 2002;110:e66
  143. Biasca N. Review and consequences of the typical ice hockey related injuries in the Swiss Ice Hockey Association (SIHA) 1996-1998. In:  Biasca N,  Montag WD,  Gerber C editor. Safety in Ice Hockey: Eighth International Symposium of the International Ice Hockey Federation IIHF. Zurich: IIHF; 2000;p. 36–52
  144. Brunelle JP, Goulet C, Arguin H. Promoting respect for the rules and injury prevention in ice hockey: Evaluation of the fair-play program. J Sci Med Sport. 2005;8:294–304
  145. Roberts WO, Brust JD, Leonard B, et al. Fair-play rules and injury reduction in ice hockey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996;150:140–145

PII: S1071-9091(06)00128-8

doi: 10.1016/j.spen.2006.09.005

Seminars in Pediatric Neurology
Volume 13, Issue 4 , Pages 243-255 , December 2006

Article Tools

* Image Usage & Resolution